Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR), ROAR HPAI Transmission Risk on Dairy Farms

OCP Nutricrops, Enhancing crop quality and nutrition monitoring

OCP Nutricrops is  looking for innovative solutions (agronomic and non-agronomic) to improve the nutritional quality of staple crops, fruits, and vegetables, along with low-cost tools that can monitor and verify nutritional value from soil through harvest. Tools should be suitable for use on soil or on crops in their natural, unprocessed form. :

BASF, Novel actives for insect and nematode control

OCP Nutricrops, Boosting nitrogen use efficiency

National Geographic Society, The Future of Learning; The Future of our Planet

USDA-FAS-10960-0700-10-25-0008, Coordinating Agricultural Development & Innovation (CADI) Georgia: U.S. Poultry Meat Marketing Promotion

Private Company, Sprayable wound treatment for screwworm control in cattle

UPL, Seed treatment targeting soybean sudden death syndrome

Bio-Rad Laboratories, Sample preparation for droplet digital PCR applications

GitLab Foundation, AI for Economic Opportunity

NSF 25-542, Smart Health and Biomedical Research in the Era of Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Data Science (SCH)

• Estimated Number of Awards: 10 to 16 per year
• Projects will be funded for up to four years for a total of $1,200,000 ($300,000 per year).
• Anticipated Amount of Funding Available: $15 to $20 million
• Limit on Number of Proposals per PI or co-PI: 2

The purpose of this interagency program solicitation is to support the development of transformative high-risk, high-reward advances in computer and information science, engineering, mathematics, statistics, behavioral and/or cognitive research to address pressing questions in the biomedical and public health communities.

USDA-NIFA-AFRI-011134, Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grants Program Foundational and Applied Science Program

• NEW IN FY 2026 – A Mentoring Plan is now required for all AFRI grant applications (excluding Workshop grants, equipment grants and sabbatical grants) for projects that involve any type of education, training or mentoring of students or other individuals including high school students, undergraduate students, graduate students, professional degree students, postdoctoral scholars, other professionals or any other individual receiving any type of formal, or non-formal training on the proposed project.
• Amount of Funding Available: $300 million
• Due dates range from Oct 2 to Nov 13 depending on priority area
• Rapid Response applications are accepted on a continuous basis after the RFA has been published
• AFRI is America’s flagship competitive grants program for fundamental and applied resea

NSF PD 19-126Y, Science of Science: Discovery, Communication and Impact (SoS:DCI)

The Science of Science: Discovery, Communication and Impact (SoS:DCI) program is designed to advance theory and knowledge about increasing the public value of scientific activity. Science of Science draws from multiple disciplinary and field perspectives to advance theory and research about scientific discovery, communication and impact. SoS:DCI welcomes proposals applying rigorous empirical research methods to advance theory and knowledge on:

• The social and structural mechanisms of scientific discovery.
• Theories, frameworks, models and data that improve our understanding of scientific communication and outcomes.
• The societal benefits of scientific activity and how science advances evidence-based policy making and the creation of public value.

FFAR (Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research), Growing Impact Award Request for Applications

Pre-applications are due Sep 3.

The Growing Impact Award program was established to build on FFAR’s successful investments and provide opportunities for high-performing projects to translate research outputs into greater impacts aligned with FFAR’s Research Strategy, benefiting U.S. agriculture. Research funded through this program will accelerate innovation, expand impact, strengthen public-private partnerships and encourage more integrated research of previous FFAR-funded projects.  

RFA-RM-25-003, NIH Director’s Transformative Research Awards (R01 Clinical Trial Optional)

The NIH Director’s Transformative Research Award supports individual scientists or groups of scientists proposing bold, groundbreaking, exceptionally innovative, original, and/or unconventional research with the potential to create new scientific paradigms, establish entirely new and improved clinical approaches, or develop transformative technologies. Applications in all topics relevant to the broad mission of NIH are encouraged, including, but not limited to, behavioral, social, biomedical, applied, and formal sciences and topics that may involve basic, translational, or clinical research. 

NSF 25-540, National Science Foundation Translation to Practice (NSF TTP)

The U.S. NSF Directorate for Technology, Innovation and Partnerships (NSF TIP) partners across sectors to advance three primary focus areas – accelerating technology translation and development, fostering regional innovation and economic growth, and preparing the American workforce for future high-wage jobs in STEM fields. 

• A PI (or Co-PI) may submit only one NSF TTP proposal
• A PI must hold either:
  • A tenured or tenure-track position, or
  • A primary, full-time, paid appointment in a research or teaching position (with exceptions granted for family or medical leave), as determined by the submitting institution.

AgriProspects, Mini-Grant Round 2

• Number of Awards Available: 5
• Project Period: 2 years
• Maximum Award: $200,000

AgriProspects, a national program of the Extension Foundation, is a five year grant program sponsored by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) which aims to elevate the profile of Extension’s non-traditional, non-credit adult agricultural workforce development (AAWD) skill attainment opportunities and enhance internal and external AAWD practices, partnerships, and networks across Extension.

Private Company, Antibodies for milk and soy allergen detection

This company is looking for highly sensitive antibodies targeting milk and soy allergens for use in food allergen diagnostic applications. We are open to purchasing or licensing antibodies from commercial, academic, and governmental groups that have developed or are developing allergen-specific antibodies for diagnostic applications. Solutions of interest include:

• Antibodies for milk allergens
• Antibodies for soy allergens
• Alternative antibody-based binding reagents (e.g., nanobodies, recombinant antibody fragments)

PepsiCo, Novel proteins, peptides and amino acids with health benefits

PepsiCo is looking for novel proteins, peptides, and amino acids that provide specific health benefits in the area of weight management and muscle development, retention, or repair. While this is our primary interest, we also welcome protein-derived solutions that address other health areas listed below. Solutions of interest include:

• Weight management
• Muscle development, retention, and repair
• Heart health
• Sport performance
• Cognition
• Digestion
• Satiety
• Hormonal management
• Overall wellness

NSF 25-539, Verticals-enabling Intelligent Network Systems (VINES)

The VINES program seeks to support both fundamental research and verticals-driven technology development, demonstration, and translation activities that will lead to leaps in performance and capabilities of next generation (NextG) advanced intelligent network systems that span the user-edge-core-cloud continuum. The program seeks to go beyond the current research portfolios within individual participating NSF directorates and partner organizations by simultaneously emphasizing gains in performance and capabilities without compromising resilience and interoperability across all layers of the networking protocol and computation stacks. Innovations are sought across the various aspects of next generation communications, networking, and computing systems.

USDA-NIFA-SRGP-011275, Special Research Grants Program Potato Breeding Research

• Grant Duration: 24 months
• Anticipated Number of Awards: 4
• Minimum Award Amount: $500,000
• Maximum Award Amount: $1.5 million 

The Potato Breeding Research program (program code AN) will fund two-year projects that have great potential for developing and releasing new potato varieties with a high value to the commercial U.S. potato industry. The Potato Breeding Research program encourages applicants to establish and work through regional, multi-location, research breeding networks to address priority national or regional science needs of the potato industry.

NSF 22-629, Science and Technology Studies (STS)

• The STS program encourages research on complex socio-technical and techno-scientific problems that are best confronted using a distributed approach by multiple collaborative teams
• Estimated Number of Awards: 40
• Anticipated Funding Amount: $6.2 million

Science and Technology Studies (STS) is an interdisciplinary field that investigates the conceptual foundations, historical developments and social contexts of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), including medical science. The STS program supports proposals across a broad spectrum of research that uses historical, philosophical and social scientific methods to investigate STEM theory and practice. STS research may be empirical or conceptual; specifically, it may focus on the intellectual, material or social facets of STEM.

. Private Company, Novel drying technology for meat-based products

This is a leading company in consumer product goods, dedicated to providing high-quality, nutritious products. Their focus is on high-meat formulations, which require precise drying techniques to maintain their nutritional value and quality. Traditional drying methods, such as hot-air drying by convection, often result in nutrient loss and undesirable changes in texture, aroma, and flavor due to extended heat processes, which negatively impact the product quality, consumer satisfaction, and production efficiency. We aim to identify novel drying solutions that can preserve the integrity of high-meat formulations while streamlining manufacturing performance by reducing production costs and lowering energy consumption.

Bayer Crop Science, HortiEdit 2025: Thriving plants, sustainable harvest

Bayer Crop Science is looking to leverage gene editing to develop solanaceous crops (such as tomatoes and peppers), cucurbits (such as cucumbers and melons), and strawberries that exhibit reduced susceptibility to diseases, enhanced structural traits, and improved agronomic sustainability, including tolerance to variable growing conditions. 

Private Company, Potentiators to enhance fungicide performance

Natural and synthetic-derived chemistries can be potentiators for fungicides. These compounds exhibit anti-fungal activity only in combination with a fungicide but have no fungicide activity alone. Furthermore, each potentiator increases the potency of its respective fungicide against its fungal target(s), by possibly improving the bioavailability of the fungicide to the pathogen, offering another mode of action, and extending the window of disease protection.

BASF and Bayer, Seed health tests for pathogen viability

Providing healthy (vegetable) seeds to customers is a prerequisite for sustainable food production. A healthy seed is free from pathogenic organisms that could cause disease in the developing plant. Frequently used methods to determine seed health such as ELISA and PCR detect the presence of proteins or nucleic acids associated with specific plant pathogens. However, these methods cannot distinguish between viable, infectious pathogens and non-viable remnants. As a result, a positive test may indicate the presence of non-viable organisms, residual genetic material left on the seed after a disinfection treatment, or environmental contamination with genetic material, rather than an actual infection risk. Therefore, such test results may not reliably reflect the true risk posed by a seed lot when it is brought into the market.

FFAR, Dairy Management Inc. (DMI), and Zoetis, Dairy Health, Efficiency & Resource Dynamics (Dairy HERD) Initiative

• Proposals between $500,000 and $1 million
• Projects can be up to two years in length
• The matching funds for this opportunity have already been secured, but additional matching funds are encouraged.

The Dairy HERD Initiative is a partnership between FFAR, Dairy Management Inc. (DMI) and Zoetis to advance research that will enable U.S. Dairy and allied industry to better understand and use innovations to support improved animal health/management and welfare, economic viability and environmental outcomes. Recent reports suggest that improving the health of dairy cows in the U.S. could substantially improve the environmental outcomes associated with dairy production.

PAR-24-298, Mechanism for Time-Sensitive Substance Use Research (R21 Clinical Trial Optional)

This notice of funding opportunity (NOFO) will support pilot, feasibility or exploratory research in priority areas in substance use epidemiology, prevention, and health services, including research in response to: 1 )sudden and severe emerging drug issues; 2) emerging trends and topics related to a change in federal, state, or local drug policy; 3) unexpected and time-sensitive medical system issues; 4) unexpected and time-sensitive criminal or juvenile justice opportunities that relate to drug misuse and access and provision of health care service; 5) the early implementation of new or newly changed federal, state, or local programs, policy, financing, or payment approaches related to substance use, substance use epidemiology, prevention, treatment, or recovery; 6) natural disasters or newly emergent public health emergencies, to und

The Chan Zuckerberg Biohub Network (CZ Biohub Network) and the Stellar Science Foundation (SS-F), Global Science Scholars Program

Please note: Applications will be accepted on a rolling basis and will be reviewed at several points during the open application period that runs from December 17, 2024, to May 27, 2025. All application deadlines and dates are based on Pacific Time

The Global Science Scholars program is a postdoctoral fellowship of up to two years designed to advance early-stage careers and catalyze groundbreaking science globally. We are seeking to support cutting-edge science in bioengineering and biomedical domains and, in particular, people who are committed to pursuing up to two years of research directed at creating a better future for all by conducting research outside of their degree granting country. 

NSF 24-608, Safety, Security, and Privacy of Open-Source Ecosystems (Safe-OSE)

• Each award will be for 24 months.
• Year One budget maximum is $500,000; Year Two budget maximum is $1 million
• Total budget maximum is $1.5 million
• PI, co-PI or other senior personnel must hold either:
  • A tenured or tenure-track positions, or
  • A primary, full-time, paid appointment in a research or teaching position, or
  • A staff leadership role in an Open-Source Program Office or equivalent position

To respond to the growing threats to the safety, security, and privacy of open-source ecosystems (OSEs), NSF is launching the Safety, Security, and Privacy for Open-Source Ecosystems (Safe-OSE) program.

Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research, FFAR Fellows Fellowship Program (Professional Development ONLY)

This award is for Graduate Students

Students from any university in the U.S. or Canada are eligible to apply for both categories of the Fellowship. Sponsorship, matched equally by the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research, can be derived from industry, foundations, NGOs, commodity organizations, and non-federal university funds. Sponsorship from several sources can be combined to support a student.  Must be enrolled or accepted by a PhD program at a U.S. or Canadian university. A student who is selected as a FFAR Fellow in the Professional Development category in one year may apply in a subsequent year for the Stipend + Professional Development category. Regardless of the outcome of that application, the student would continue with his/her original cohort of Fellows.

NSF 25-534, Strengthening American Infrastructure (SAI)

• A PI/Co-PI/Sr. Personnel may participate or consult-on a single project per application submission cycle

This program seeks to stimulate human-centered, use-inspired, fundamental and potentially transformative research aimed at strengthening America’s infrastructure. Effective infrastructure provides a strong foundation for socioeconomic vitality and broad improvement in quality of life. Robust, reliable and effective infrastructure spurs private-sector innovation, grows the economy, creates jobs, makes public-sector service provision more efficient, strengthens communities, promotes equal opportunity, protects the natural environment, enhances national security and fuels American leadership.

NIH PA-23-272, Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award (NRSA) Individual Predoctoral Fellowship (Parent F31)

This award is for Graduate Students

The purpose of the Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award (NRSA) Individual Predoctoral Fellowship (Parent F31) award is to enable promising predoctoral students to obtain individualized, mentored research training from outstanding faculty sponsors while conducting dissertation research in scientific health-related fields relevant to the missions of the participating NIH Institutes and Centers. The proposed mentored research training must reflect the candidate’s dissertation research project and is expected to clearly enhance the individual’s potential to develop into a productive, independent research scientist.

ED-GRANTS-111224-001, Research Training Programs in the Education Sciences Grant Program, Early Career Development and Mentoring

• An institution may submit multiple applications to the Early Career Development and Mentoring Program so long as the Principal Investigator (PI) is different for each application and there is no overlap in mentors. 

Through the Research Training Programs in the Education Sciences Grant Program, IES (Institute of Education Sciences) aims to prepare individuals to conduct rigorous and relevant education research that advances knowledge within the field and addresses issues important to education policymakers and practitioners. 

USDA-NIFA-ICGP-011075, Integrated Research, Education, and Extension Competitive Grants Program – Organic Transitions

• All fieldwork on organic practices must be done on USDA certified organic land and/or in USDA certified organic facilities.
• Projects must use combinations of research plus education and/or extension activities and describe expected outcomes and impacts.
• Maximum Award Amount: $1 million

The overall goal of the ORG program is to support the development and implementation of research, extension, and higher education programs to improve the competitiveness of U.S. organic livestock and crop producers, as well as those who are adopting organic practices.

NSF 25-514, NSF Scholarships in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Program (S-STEM)

• The maximum award amount is up to $2,000,000 for up to 6 years.
• Estimated number of Awards: 40 to 60
• Anticipated funding amount: $80,000 to $120,000
  • Awards for Track 1 (Institutional Capacity Building) projects may not exceed $2,000,000 total for a maximum duration of 6 years.
  • Awards for Track 2 (Implementation Projects) projects may not exceed $2,000,000 total for a maximum duration of 6 years.
  • Awards for Track 3 (Inter-institutional Consortia) projects may not exceed $5,000,000 total for a maximum duration of 6 years.

The main goal of the S-STEM program is to enable academically talented, low-income students to pursue successful careers in promising STEM fields.

RFA-HG-25-004, Advancing Genomic Medicine Research (R03 Clinical Trial Not Allowed)

• Only accepting applications that do not propose clinical trials
• NHGRI intends to fund an estimate of 2 awards, corresponding to $150K total cost, for fiscal year 2024. Future year amounts will depend on annual appropriations.  
• Application budgets are limited to $50K in direct costs per year and should reflect the actual needs of the proposed project.
• The maximum project period is 2 years

This NOFO solicits proposals that stimulate innovation and advance understanding of when, where, and how best to implement the use and sharing of genomic information and technologies in clinical care in all persons irrespective of racial/ethnic background or socioeconomic status.

ED-GRANTS-112024-001, Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (Partnership Grants)

The GEAR UP program is a discretionary grant program that encourages eligible entities to provide support, and maintain a commitment, to eligible students from low-income backgrounds, including students with disabilities, to assist the students in obtaining a secondary school diploma (or its recognized equivalent) and to prepare for and succeed in postsecondary education. Under the GEAR UP program, the Department awards grants to two types of entities: (1) States and (2) Partnerships consisting of at least one degree-granting institution of higher education (IHE) and at least one local educational agency (LEA).

Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR) & Danone Institute North America, Regenerative Agriculture

• Amount Available: Up to $450,000
• One to two awards will be given
• Matching funds encouraged but not required

This funding intends to support socio-economic research on both large and small dairy farms that aims to promote replication of hub farm best management practices across the farm environments. The research should also provide guidance for encouraging middle adopters of regenerative agriculture practices to increase and maintain cover crop acres and facilitate the acquisition of appropriate equipment and infrastructure to scale these practices. Such activities aim to stimulate more resource sharing opportunities for new and middle adopters of regenerative agriculture practices. These new and middle adopters will include underserved producers that may identify as Mennonite and Amish 

USDA-NIFA-SLBCD-011077, Smith-Lever Special Needs Competitive Grants Program

The SLSNCGP requests proposals for two types of projects: 

• 1) Extension Standard Projects, and
• 2) Extension Planning Projects.

NIFA requests applications for the Smith-Lever Special Needs Competitive Grants Program (SLSNCGP) RFA for fiscal year (FY) 2025 to enable the Cooperative Extension System (CES) to assist in preparing for, providing an educational response to, recovering from, and mitigating disasters and disaster threats. This program supports innovative, education-based approaches to address disaster preparedness and specific responses related to disasters or disaster threats caused by natural, human-made, or technological hazards, or by other factors that contribute to the exposure or vulnerability of a community. 

Danone Institute North America, Sustainable Food Systems Initiative

The DINA Sustainable Food Systems Initiative is a competitive program that will select and fund up to five transdisciplinary teams in 2025 to design, implement and evaluate actionable community-based projects that contribute to the nutritional health of adult populations and support publication and communication about their impact.

PAR-25-273, Development of Animal Models and Related Biological Materials for Research (R21 Clinical Trial Not Allowed)

• Total project may not exceed two years

This notice of funding opportunity (NOFO) encourages innovative research to develop, improve, characterize, and preserve animal models as well as animal model related biological materials, technologies, and new approach methodologies (NAMs) for studies relevant to human health and disease. This NOFO also seeks projects aimed at improving the diagnosis and control of diseases that could confound or interfere with animal use in biomedical research. The proposed project must have broad applicability to multiple NIH Institutes or Centers (ICs) to align with the NIH-wide mission of the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP). The proposed studies must include animal models and explore multiple body systems or multiple categories of diseases.

Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research, FFAR Fellows Fellowship Program (Stipend + Professional Development

This award is for Graduate Students

Students from any university in the U.S. or Canada are eligible to apply for both categories of the Fellowship. Sponsorship, matched equally by the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research, can be derived from industry, foundations, NGOs, commodity organizations, and non-federal university funds. Sponsorship from several sources can be combined to support a student.  Must be enrolled or accepted by a PhD program at a U.S. or Canadian university. A student who is selected as a FFAR Fellow in the Professional Development category in one year may apply in a subsequent year for the Stipend + Professional Development category. Regardless of the outcome of that application, the student would continue with his/her original cohort of Fellows.

NSF 22-548, EHR Core Research: Building Capacity in STEM Education Research

• Estimated Number of Awards: 29
  • Individual Investigator Development in STEM Education Research: Up to 19 awards. The maximum award is $350,000 for three years.
  • Institutes for Methods and Practices in STEM Education Research: Up to 5 awards. The maximum award is $1,000,000 for three years.
  • Conference: Up to 5 awards. The typical award amount for a conference is $25,000 to $100,000.
• Co-PIs are not allowed on Individual Investigator Development proposals.

ECR’s Building Capacity in STEM Education Research (ECR: BCSER) supports projects that build investigators’ capacity to carry out high-quality STEM education research that will enhance the nation’s STEM education enterprise.

Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research (FFAR) & Danone Institute North America, Sustainable Food Systems Initiative Focus on Food

Danone Institute North America announces a request for proposals for a new award as part of its partnership with the Foundation for Food & Agriculture Research (FFAR). The two purpose-driven organizations have partnered to expand DINA’s current Sustainable Food Systems Initiative grant program into a new grant program that demonstrates the link between agriculture, the food supply, and health.

North Central Region Center for Rural Development NCRCRG, Rural Development Research and/or Extension Projects in the North Central Region

• Proposals that engage both Extension and Agricultural Experiment Station (AES) personnel are strongly encouraged. Proposals that bridge social and biophysical sciences to foster rural development are also encouraged.
• Single PI proposal budgets may not exceed $25,000. Proposals with two or more Co-PIs may not exceed $40,000. 
• All projects must be completed within one year of start date.

The North Central Regional Center for Rural Development (NCRCRD) at Purdue University announces a competition for seed grants aimed at enhancing the ability of Land Grant institutions to positively influence the quality of life in rural areas of the twelve-states in the North Central Region of the United States. 

NSF 24-606: Pathways to Enable Open-Source Ecosystems (POSE)

• Estimated Number of Awards: 30 to 50
• If a proposal involves multiple organizations, it must be submitted as a single proposal with sub-awards; separately submitted collaborative proposals are not permitted.
• Anticipated Funding Amount: $27.8 million
• PI, co-PI or other senior personnel must hold either:
  • A tenured or tenure-track positions, or
  • A primary, full-time, paid appointment in a research or teaching position, or
  • A staff leadership role in an Open-Source Program Office or equivalent position

The Pathways to Enable Open-Source Ecosystems (POSE) program aims to harness the power of open-source development for the creation of new technology solutions to problems of national and societal importance.

NSF 24-604, Ethical and Responsible Research (ER2)

• An individual may appear as PI, co-PI, or Senior/Key Personnel on no more than two proposals submitted in response to this solicitation.
• This solicitation will consider proposals for four types of projects:
  •  Conference Projects maximum budget of $50,000 up to 12 months.
  • Incubation Projects maximum budget of $100,000 up to 12 months.
  •  Standard Research Projects maximum budget of $400,000 up to 3 years.
  •  Partnership for Transformational Research Projects maximum budget of $700,000 up to 4 years.

The ER2 program supports projects that focus on what constitutes or promotes responsible and ethical research in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

PAR-25-051, Blueprint Neurotherapeutics Network (BPN): Small Molecule Drug Discovery and Development of Disorders of the Nervous System (UG3/UH3 Clinical Trial Optional)

• LOI sue 30 days prior to application due date
• Applicants may seek up to one year of UG3 funding
• UH3 phase cannot exceed four years
• Total project cannot exceed five years

The Blueprint Neurotherapeutics Network (BPN) invites applications from neuroscience investigators seeking support to advance their small molecule drug discovery and development projects into the clinic. Participants in the BPN are responsible for conducting all studies that involve disease- or target-specific assays, models, and other research tools and receive funding for all activities to be conducted in their own laboratories.

RFA-AI-24-065, Discovery and Development of Novel Therapeutics for Select Fungal Pathogens (R21/R33 Clinical Trial Not Allowed)

• Estimated Funding available: $2.4 million
• Estimated Number of Awards: 8 to 10
• Application budgets are limited to $275,000 in direct costs over the two-year R21 project period with a maximum of $200,000 in direct costs allowed in any singe year
• Application budgets may not exceed $300,000 in direct costs per year for the R33 phase

Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) are significant causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, leading to an estimated one and a half million deaths per year. Only three major classes of antifungals are in use clinically and the treatment of IFIs remains challenging due to limited options, toxicities, drug-drug interactions, restricted routes of administration, limited central nervous system (CNS) penetration, and emerging resistance.